Executive summary

Effective measures for school-to-work transition in the vocational education system: Lessons from Australia and Korea

1. Background

This study has been conducted jointly by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) and Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training (KRIVET). It explores how school-to-work transition processes can be improved to provide better outcomes for students in vocational education (VE) institutions in Korea and vocational education and training (VET) institutions in Australia. It originates from the need, for both countries, to respond to increased demands for a skilled and flexible workforce to meet the requirements of increasingly globalised and knowledge-based economies. It is also focused on the need to strengthen the accountability of VE and VET providers, and to provide suggestions for improving the training of students for the modern workplace.

2. Aims of the study

The process of school-to-work transition can be divided into three separate but inter-linking stages: preparation through education, actual transition, and outcomes in the labour market. This study is focused on the preparation stage of the process and has sought to identify viable methods for providing in-kind and financial support to programs designed to facilitate school-to-work transition for students, and for upgrading the competencies of existing workers.

For this purpose, the study attempted to answer the following research questions:

1. How is research being conducted on school-to-work transition?

2. What are the measures being implemented in Korean and Australian VE institutions to foster school-to-work transition and what are the critical issues and problems raised?

3. What measures do teachers and professors in VE institutions want implemented for effective school-to-work transition of students from these institutions?

4. What lessons can be learned from research findings from the Korean and Australian experience?

Data in Korea were collected through questionnaires administered to teachers in vocational high schools and professors in vocational colleges. Vocational high schools comprised those schools operating the 2+1 system or the 2+2 articulation program and specialised high schools. Vocational colleges included those conducting special programs, such as 2+2 articulation programs and customised educational programs. Data in Australia were collected through questionnaires administered to lecturers in technical and further education (TAFE) institutes, and teachers and vocational coordinators in secondary schools. Telephone interviews were used to gather information from representatives of group training companies. A review of literature and policy frameworks provided information on the implementation of reforms in the two countries.

3. Findings from the literature

Findings from the review of previous studies confirmed the need to implement in Korea national and institution-based policy frameworks and structures to improve the school-to-work transition of students. They also highlighted the need to strengthen the relationship between vocational education and the needs of the labour market. An examination of strategies and policy frameworks adopted in Korea and other countries to reform their systems of vocational education has identified the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches, and has provided some direction for further investigation.

The review of Korean studies has focused on the implementation of reforms in specialised vocational high schools, the 2+1 program in technical high schools, the articulation programs between vocational high schools and vocational colleges, and the customised education programs in vocational colleges. The review of Australian research has focused on school-based and post-school vocational education (and training). It has focused on reforms to the apprenticeship and traineeship system, the identification of competencies, and the methods of delivery. It has also made comment on the effectiveness of some pathways to deliver labour market outcomes.

It is clear from the literature that there are a variety of approaches to the study of school-to-work transition, and that many of the studies have tended to ignore the preparation stage. It is also clear that more studies are required to examine the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders in government, industry, and vocational education institutions, and to make recommendations for reform. It is also essential that any process for reforming policies, structures, and strategies for enabling students to make an effective transition to work in Korea and Australia (and indeed in any country) must take account of the needs of industry, and changing labour market and workplace demands. In view of the ageing population in Korea and Australia there is also a need to take into account demographic changes in the labour force. In both countries there is also a need for inter-ministry cooperation, in terms of employment and education and training portfolios.

4. Implementation of policy reforms in the vocational education system

1) Australia

The Australian system for vocational education and training has undergone substantial reform since the mid-1980s. This has been to respond to the demands of an increasingly globalised economy and the realisation that industry needed to be restructured if it were to become internationally competitive. This study has examined four major pathways to work. These include (a) post-school and (b) school-based apprenticeships and traineeships which combine paid employment with training and (c) industry-specific vocational education and training programs in senior secondary schools which enable students to complete vocational qualifications and general senior secondary certificates. It also includes (d) post-school institution-based vocational education and training programs which are not tied to employment.

In the year ending 31 March 2003, there were 391 700 apprentices and trainees in training, an increase of 15% from the previous year. Of these, 44.3% were over the age of 25 years. Just over a third were in trades and trade-related occupations. In the year ending 31 March 2003 there were 10 900 commencements in school-based apprenticeships, representing 4% of all apprenticeship commencements for that year. In 2002 there were 200 group training companies nationwide. They employed a total of 38 000 apprentices and trainees and this was more than double the number employed in 1995. In 2002 a total of 40.6% of VET students were over the age of 25 years. Another 20.5% were over the age of 40 years.

In 2002 there were 185 520 students in a VET in Schools program compared with 60 000 students in 1996. In 2002 there were 2083 secondary schools delivering VET in the senior secondary programs. In 2002 a total of 112 403 students had undertaken a structured workplacement, representing 61% of students in these programs, compared with 55% in 2001. Students were enrolled in subjects covered by the following industry groupings: tourism and hospitality; business and clerical; computing, arts, and entertainment; sport; engineering and mining; building and construction; textile, clothing, footwear, and furnishings; community services, health and education; sales and personal services; primary industry; automotive; communications; science and technical; process manufacturing; utilities; food processing; finance, banking and insurance; and transport and storage. They were also enrolled in what are called general education and training programs, which include job-seeking, workplace communications, occupational health and safety and personal development.

In 2003 there were 85 TAFE institutes or other government providers (including agricultural colleges providing VET programs). They deliver training in 1460 separate locations.

A major feature of the Australian system which supports the preparation of students for the workplace is the system of competency-based training encompassed by national training packages developed by industry and endorsed by government. They comprise competency standards, linked qualifications, and guidelines for assessment. In 2002 there were 716 600 or 43% of students enrolled in training package qualifications. By 2003 there were 102 training packages endorsed by government. This included 20 training packages which had been superseded and modified after a review process.

A national system of qualifications, represented by the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) enables qualifications to be transported across state boundaries, and the operation of flexible inter-linking pathways between educational sectors. In 2002 there were 68.4% of students undertaking an AQF qualification, continuing the trend for the previous years.

A national system for quality assurance in the VET sector (the Australian Quality Training Framework) has recently been implemented to ensure that accredited training providers, and those bodies responsible for providing the accreditation, comply with defined standards.

2) Korea

During the last decade there have also been reforms implemented in the Korean VE system. These reforms have similarly been aimed at improving the ability of schools and colleges to provide the relevant knowledge and skills required by students for effective participation in the workforce, and required by industry to compete effectively in domestic and global markets.

The specialised high school program was introduced in 1998 to provide diversified and specialised education within the existing high school framework. It was aimed at broadening the scope of the standardised curriculum to meet the diverse needs of high school students and to develop skills and knowledge required by industry. By 2002 there were 48 schools offering these programs. These accounted for a total enrolment of 9217 students. They provided programs in electrical and electronic engineering; information technology; media and film; design arts; tourism and linguistics; cooking and food sciences; fashion and skincare; horticulture and environment; footwear design and production; and animation.

The 2+1 system in technical high schools was introduced to enable students to undertake training to acquire skills for industry and to help students make a smooth transition to work. It requires students to undertake one year of on-the-job training and work in industry. In 1994 there were 20 such technical high schools providing the 2+1 program and accounting for 3169 student enrolments. Three years later these numbers had more than quadrupled. However, they fell dramatically in 1998 (signalling the effect of the economic crisis) and have been falling steadily since. Today there are just 30 schools delivering the 2+1 program.

Articulation pathways programs between vocational high schools and vocational colleges were introduced in 1996 to enable students to acquire both professional knowledge and skills, and to provide students with a smooth transition from secondary school to tertiary studies. There were four vocational colleges and three vocational high schools trialling the program in 1996. By 2002 there were 127 colleges and 405 vocational high schools with articulation programs in place.

Customised education programs are offered in vocational colleges to provide skills and knowledge required by industry, and to enable students to compete effectively in the labour market. In 1999 these were 80 vocational colleges delivering these programs; by 2001 this figure had increased to 121 colleges.

5. Needs assessment is the key to effective school-to-work transition

1) Australia

Responses to questionnaires were received from 172 lecturers involved in post-school apprenticeship and traineeship programs, and institution-based programs in TAFE institutes, and 49 VET coordinators and teachers in secondary schools. The survey was conducted in South Australia and collected information on the post-school and school-based apprenticeship and traineeship pathways, institutionally based post-school pathways, and VET in Schools pathways.

The findings of the survey in Australia revealed that all these pathways are perceived by teachers and lecturers to provide students with the initial skills and knowledge they will require to make the transition from school to work or to further training and to work. The findings also reveal that, in the main, teachers and lecturers agree that students enrol in these programs because they want to get a headstart in the world of work. Notwithstanding the success of these programs in enabling the majority of students who undertake them to make a successful initial transition to work by teaching them industry-specific skills and knowledge, there are still problems encountered in their practical application. These are reported below.

1. In terms of post-school apprenticeships and traineeships there is a need to ensure adequate time for apprentices and trainees to practise skills, and for providers to provide adequate assistance when students may be falling behind in their work. There is also a need to make more specific the language in training packages, and to implement strategies to improve the literacy and numeracy skills of apprentices and trainees, and to instil in them appropriate work and study habits.

2. There are major logistical problems which have limited the take-up by some industries of school-based part-time apprenticeships or traineeships. These concern the length of time students have to participate in work-based projects, availability of students when they are required in industry, and student access to appropriate equipment and materials and teachers with relevant industry experience and expertise. There is a need for schools to increase the flexibility of school timetables to enable students to better meet all their commitments, and for teachers to be provided with the professional development and industry experience required to enable them to provide adequate training.

3. If students are to move along flexible and inter-linked pathways to further education and then to work, there is a need to ensure that providers of post-school institution-based programs recognise prior learning and qualifications already acquired. One way to ensure confidence in the quality of the prior learning is to establish partnerships with feeder schools to develop appropriate programs of training and to share equipment and expertise. This includes paying attention to developing the literacy and numeracy skills of students, and to instilling in them appropriate study habits. There is also a concern that the competency standards in the training packages are too broad and allow for too much individual interpretation.

4. In terms of VET in Schools programs there is a need to improve the flexibility of school timetables to enable students to attend workplacements without having to miss out on favorite subjects or having to sacrifice school holidays. In addition, there is a need to ensure that students have the literacy and numeracy skills and the relevant study skills to enable them to participate effectively in post-school training programs. In addition, it is important for them to instil appropriate work habits in students. The establishment of strong linkages with employers, and with post-school training providers can help schools to locate appropriate placements, and can identify for schools the necessary underpinning knowledge required for further studies.

5. Although the issue of adequacy of resources and financial support will affect the ability of all sectors to provide appropriate training, there is a need to ensure that best use of existing facilities and resources is made. This means improved collaboration between all sectors.

2) Korea

The survey in Korea was conducted between 25 June and 17 July in 2002 for vocational high schools, and between 26 August and 13 September in 2002 for vocational colleges. Completed questionnaires were received from 504 vocational high school teachers, and 381 vocational college professors, representing response rates of 60.72% and 44.82% respectively. The results revealed a number of obstacles to the effective implementation of the different VE programs. These also highlighted some major priorities for government action.

1. In terms of the specialised education program, there is a need to increase its focus on preparing students for employment and for further education as the primary goals of this program. Effective delivery of this program also requires government to remove any practical obstacles to implementation and an identification of industry and workforce skill needs.

2. There is also a need to improve teacher knowledge about the original goals of the 2+1 program in technical high schools. The survey found that, while the original intentions of the 2+1 system were to equip students with practical knowledge and skills, teachers generally believed that the major goal was to enable students to advance to institutions of higher education. If this system is to work as it was originally intended, then it is important for the program to reflect existing industry demands. To do this the government should allocate substantial funds for improving the facilities and equipment required for appropriate training.

3. The findings of the study indicate that there are strengths and weaknesses in the operation of articulation programs between vocational high schools and vocational colleges. The strengths are observed in terms of opportunities provided to students to engage in continuing or further vocational education after completion of secondary school. The weaknesses are observed in the reality that some vocational colleges use the program to fill student quotas. If this program is to be successful in providing a smooth transition from secondary school to further education, and then to work, then curricula need to reflect industry needs, and be monitored and revised in a timely manner to continue to keep abreast of changes. In addition, there should be adequate and timely provision of equipment and facilities, and increased collaboration between the partner institutions to ensure that faculties from each contribute to the development of curriculum and delivery of courses in both components of the program.

4. The results also indicate that there is a lot of room for improvement for customised education programs in vocational colleges. To enhance the program’s effectiveness, the curriculum should be revamped to be relevant to the National Technical Qualifications framework. Also the government and/or the colleges need to allocate more financial resources to foster the further development and availability of practical education in customised programs.

5. It is clear that the issue of budgetary constraint is related to almost every vocational education program run in Korea.

6. Implications

1) Australia

There are also a number of implications to be derived from the findings to improve school-to-work transition practices for Australian students.

1. These implications have more to do with ensuring the effectiveness and efficiency of processes already in place, than introducing any major new reforms. This is because, in a sense, the Australian vocational education and training system has already attempted to deal with the disjunction between the vocational curriculum and industry needs currently being experienced in VE institutions in Korea. It has had more than a decade to develop a system responsive to industry needs, and changes in labour market and workplace demands. Substantial funding has been devoted to the development of national industry training packages based on industry competency standards linked to qualifications, and to ensuring incentives for employers to take on apprentices and trainees.

2. The recent implementation of the Australian Quality Training Framework for quality assurance is indication that the system has required the further elaboration and definition of specific standards for the operation of registered training organisations and accrediting bodies.

3. In the Australian context, issues of inadequate literacy and numeracy skills and work and study habits of students in apprenticeship and traineeship pathways and other VET programs have been raised by lecturers in TAFE colleges and representatives of certain trade-specific group training companies. No such concerns have been raised about the literacy or numeracy skills or work and study habits of Korean students. Cultural norms of respect for authority, and doing what one is told by superiors without argument, may certainly contribute to increased time spent on tasks in Korean schools, and this may be reflected in higher levels of literacy and numeracy and respectful and appropriate work habits. There may be lessons to be learnt from the Korean approach to instilling respect and diligence in students.

4. The Korean system of having defined pathways for substantial numbers of VE students (for example, the 2+1 programs) may help to develop more effective pathways to work for Australian students who are not in formal apprenticeships and traineeships. However, these programs must be structured so that they provide industry-relevant and appropriate off-the-job and on-the-job training. In addition, these pathways should provide opportunities for students to pursue further education and training once they are in work.

5. The formal articulation programs between vocational high schools and vocational colleges, if appropriately managed, can also provide good examples of seamless pathways between school and further education. These formal articulation pathways between different educational sectors can also ensure the effective operation of the AQF, and define for students a specific route to follow to acquire advanced qualifications and skills and knowledge. The existence of these formal arrangements will also increase the level of confidence in industry about the ability of the vocational education and training system to enable students to become the highly skilled technicians and associate professionals required in many of today’s workplaces. However, such programs, whether they are based in Korea or Australia, require clear dialogue between partner institutions in the development of objectives, curriculum and assessment procedures.

6. Improving retention rates to Year 12 is also another area in which Australia can learn from the Korean experience.

2) Korea

There are a number of implications to be derived findings from the Korean and Australian experience. We begin with what the findings mean for VE in Korea.

1. First, if Korean students are to make a smooth transition to work, there is a need to consider alternative models of training. There should be an increased focus on both school-based vocational pathways and apprenticeship-type vocational pathways.

2. Second, there is a need to change negative parental attitudes about the importance of work-based learning. Parents need to recognise that this type of learning not only helps students to acquire valuable hands-on knowledge and skills, but also enables them to have increased access to higher education.

3. Third, even though the school-to-work transition policy currently operating in Korean high schools depends on students taking the initiative to shape their own transition pathways, more structured support from stakeholders is required. This support includes better information on changes in the labour market, specialised advice, and better counseling on suitable career paths. It also includes better guidance on job-seeking skills and occupational selection.

4. Fourth, vocational high schools should give their students a variety of choices of subjects, especially vocational education and training subjects. This will help to keep them motivated in learning and help them to develop skills and knowledge suitable for their interests and aptitudes.

5. Fifth, there is a need to increase the number and type of vocational education and training subjects available to students in general high schools in Korea. While more diverse choices and options related to work are available in Australia, this is not the case in Korea.

6. Sixth, vocational education and training and vocational qualifications should be linked in Korea, as is the case of the Australian Qualifications Framework in Australia.

7. Seventh, there is a need to increase and strengthen the linkages between schools and employers. This will help to diversify and increase opportunities for students to combine learning with workplace experience and to improve career guidance.

8. Lastly, vocational colleges in Korea should consider increasing the flexibility of training delivery, providing increased access to students from different backgrounds, and implementing institutionalised support networks for students. In that sense, the Australian TAFE model is a most useful, exemplary model for Korea.

7. Concluding remarks

Ensuring that there is a close connection between the vocational education and training system and industry has been shown to be as important in Korea as in Australia as both countries try to meet the demands of globalisation and the knowledge or information economy. However, any system of entry-level training which aims to help students make a successful transition to the world of work in any country must have in place supporting mechanisms and frameworks to enable accurate assessment of industry and labour market needs, and the reflection of these needs into curriculum. With the ageing of the population in both countries, both systems will have to adapt to the needs of a constantly changing workplace, and to the needs of adults in transition or preparing to make the transition from existing jobs to new jobs or higher-level jobs.

Support documents comprising questionnaires and detailed reports on findings are available at <http//www.ncver.edu.au>.

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